The Old Texts - Part 1

6^th, 7^th and 8^th centuries

Attributed to Emperor Wudi (561 - 578), founder of the Northern Zhou (Beizhou) dynasty of China, and evoked in ulterior texts as the Zhoushu, "Book of the Zhou Dynasty", written by Linghu Defen (583-661), the Suishu by Wei Zheng (580-643) and the Beishi, "History of the Northern Dynasties", by Li Yanshou (612-678). In the Suishu it is written: "When Zhou Wudi made the Xiangjing, the now deceased emperor casually asked Zheng: What is the place of the ruler of mankind, should he unify heaven and earth, should he move the ghosts and spirits, like in the Xiangjing with many binding rules, how shall I govern?". Was this game Xiangqi? Maybe not, it is believed that it was an "astronomical game".

Text made up in an obscure language by the General Yu Xin (513 - 581) who estimated that "all the things are shown in this game in the most perfect proportions". In a letter accompanying the presentation of his poem to the throne, it appraises the emperor who managed to represent the order of the world in his game. On a square board, "carrying out in the south the tallies from Red river, carrying out in the north the tactics from Black mountain". According to the German historian Banaschak, this text was composed in or shortly after 569.

Unfortunately, the Xiangjing is no longer extant, however a preface written by Wang Bao (died in 576 or 581) has been conserved. It says that the game was supposed to represent the 12 phenomena: Earth and Heaven, the Yin and Yang principles, the passing of seasons, the eight trigrams, the musical scale, loyalty and filial piety, lord and vassal, civil and military, rites and virtues. All this refers to several philosophical Chinese schools of the times. Bao's preface also explains that the pieces were moved on a board and that both strategy and military thoughts played a role in the game. Therefore, it is by no doubt a book about a "Xiangqi" but several scholars and specialists think that it is an homonym case and that this Xiangqi would be an astronomical game, Xiangxi, used for divination purpose, where pieces represented sun, moon and planets. The "Book of celestial game" would be a better translation of its title. Nevertheless, it can not be excluded that this game has played a role as a precursor of some elements of modern Xiangqi.

Indian romance written by Subhandu, around year 600 (or much earlier, in the second half of the 5th century, under the Gupta Empire). It tells the story of the princess of Ujjayini and contains a short intriguing passage: "the time of the rains played its game with frogs for chessmen, which, yellow and green in color, as if mottled with lacquer, leapt up on the black field squares". Murray accepted it for a Chess reference. However, it is not a solid proof. The word translated as "game pieces" (nayadyutair) is not specific to Chess and can indicate the pieces of any board-game. The colors are not those of the two camps, but mean that the frogs have a yellow and green dress. Finally, "black field squares" can be also translated by "black edges of the irrigated fields". In any case, chessboards used by the Indians were not uniform and not checkered, the black squares being an European medieval invention.

Also known as "Madayan i chatrang" or simply named "Chatrang namag" (The book of Chess) by Murray. The dating of this text is contested as the most indisputable and oldest manuscript was copied in India in 1322. Murray gave 650-850 and, until recently, historians were believing that the text was from the 9th century. However, the Italian professor of Iranian philology Antonio Panaino explained in a 1999 study that its anonymous author was, with good probability, a secular literate once at the court of Xusraw (Khosraw) I (531-579). That would give a writing about the first years of the 7th century.
This text is the earliest reference naming the different Chess pieces. It describes how Chatrang arrived at the court of Persia with an Indian embassy.
Dewisharm (Divsaram), an Indian king (identified to Deva Sharvavarman, a king of Kanauj from the Maukhari dynasty, by Renate Syed, professor of Sanskrit) sent its vizier, Tataritos (Takhtritus), to Xusraw I Anoshag-ruwan (immortal soul), Shah of Persia, with many presents: "a set of 16 emerald and 16 ruby pieces, 90 elephants and 1200 camels charged with gold, silver, jewels, pearls and raiment". A challenge accompanied this caravan: "As your name is King of the Kings, that means that your wise men should be wiser than ours. Either you discover the secrets of this game, or you pays tribute". Xusraw asked for few days to solve the enigma. The last day, Wuzurgmihr (Vazorgmitro) rose and says to his king: "I shall solve this game easily and secure revenue and tribute from Dewisharm and I shall prepare another thing and shall send it to Dewisharm which he shall not be able to solve and I shall exact double the tribute from him; and be you sure of this that you deserve the emperorship, and the wise men here are wiser than those of Dewisharm". He called Tataritos before him and said: "Dewisharm made this game of chess like war. He made the Kings (Shah) like two overlords, the Ministers (Madayar or Rox) essential for the left and the right flanks, the General (Frazen) to resemble the chief of the warriors, the Elephant (Pil) to resemble the chieftain protecting the rear, the Horse (Asp) to resemble the chief of the horsemen, and the Pawns (Payadag) to resemble the foot-soldiers who lead in battle". Then Wuzurgmihr proposed to the Xusraw to send to Dewisharm a game of his invention, the New-Ardaxshir, thus named in the honor of Ardaxshir (Ardashir), the founder of the dynasty. This game used 15 black and 15 white pieces on a table inspired by the movement of the stars and the cycle of the days. This history is interesting for several aspects. Firstly, it accredits by Persians themselves the Indian origin of Chess. Then, it proposes the date of the arrival of Chess for the end of the 6th century. Finally, it highlights New-Ardaxshir, soon altered in Nard, which is transmitted to Indians in return and which is the Backgammon ancestor. This latest point is not likely to be an historical reality. It should not be forgotten that this text his a tale and nothing proves that the scene at the court of Persia is historic, even though it could have happened.
It is interesting to notice that for a text composed in the purpose of honor the national pride, Persians preferred to attribute the invention of Chess (Chatrang) to foreigners and to assign a game of chance for themselves. That could surprise us but it should be understood that our scale of value does not apply to every cultures nor all the times. There, games of though were seen as simple entertainments whereas games of chance were held in higher regard because they engaged the dialogue with the Gods.

Epic text written in Pahlavi, middle-Persian, to honor Ardashir, the national hero. It tells the life of Ardaxshir (Ardashir) 1st, founder of the Sassanid dynasty and which reigned from 226 to 241. This text was probably written during the reign of Xusraw (Khosraw) II (590 - 628) but its first mention is only in 943-4. It reports that Ardashir was "more victorious and warlike than them all, on the polo and the riding, at Chatrang and New-Ardaxshir (it is Nard, ancestor of Backgammon), and in several other arts". If it is improbable that Chatrang existed so early, it remains nevertheless that this game was held in high regard in Persia at the time of writing the Karnamak.

Official history of king Shri Harsha (Harsha the blessed) of Kanauj (606-647), written by the poet of court Bana between 625 and 640. Kanauj is the old name of Kanyakubja, a city which was a powerful Indian kingdom on the Ganges valley. The king was famous for his conversion to Buddhism. Bana, praising the prevailing peace, said: "Under this monarch, only the bees quarreled to collect the dew; the only feet cut off were those of measurements, and only from Ashtapada one could learn how to draw up a Chaturanga,there were no cutting off the four limbs of condemned criminals...". All the text plays with puns. If there is little doubt that Ashtapada is the gaming-board of 8x8 squares, the double meaning of Chaturanga, as the four folded army, is controverted. There is a probability that the ancestor of Chess was mentioned there. However, some historians disagree and see in this text an allusion to the giant Purusha, often represented with his limbs folded on a square 8x8 or 9x9 diagram. The Vedic mythology says the Gods caught him with a net and cut his legs and arms. With his sacrifice, the World was created. Here could lie the explanation of the pun. The point remains open.

Also known as "Xusraw u retak". That small text, probably written in the 7th century under the Sassanids, is dedicated to the education of the young princes under Xusraw I Anosharwan (Khosraw Anushirwan) (531-579). One of them teaches us that he "excels with Chess, Nard and "8 cases" ("ud pad chatrang ud new-ardaxshir ud hashtpay"). Hasht-pay is the Persian word for Ashtapada. Therefore, Persians also knew Ashtapada!

Fazang (645-712) was a Chinese Buddhist monk (but of Sogdian origin) who evoked "Prasena" in his text in these terms: "Prasena was a military game in the Western Region (Central Asia) and two players each have more than twenty small jade tokens which serve as elephants and horses and these must takes strategic command of all roads on the board." Was this Prasena a Chess-like game like Chatrang or is it the earliest testimony about Xiangqi?

The Arabs conquered Persia in 638-651 and then discovered the game. The first Arabic reference to Shatranj is a verse containing the word "baidaq" which means the "Pawn" in an al-Farazdaq's poem published in 728: "...you remain a Baidaq (Pawn) among the Bayadiq (Pawns)". This technical allusion to the Pawn's promotion shows that the game was fairly known.

Code of a great school, founded by Abu Hanifa (died 767), which was the official canon under the 'Abbasids. It forbade Nard and disapproved Shatranj (but did not forbid it). The other great schools were the Malikite, founded by Malik ibn Anas (died 795) who was strongly opposed to Shatranj, the Shafi'ite, founded by ash-Shafi'i (died 820) who allowed it as long as it was not played for recreation, and the Hanbalite, founded by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (died 855) who agreed with Hanifites.

A famous romance, with strong incertitude on its real author and its date of composition. There would be a scene where the hero, Apaharavarman, would have observed a game of chess. (If you have more information about this passage, please contact me).